Neo - classical age in English literature (1660-1798)

Neo - classical age in English literature (1660-1798)......

Neoclassical age reached after the decaying of Commonwealth period. During This period monarchy system continued again  all over England .the writers of this period tried to imitate the style of Roman and Greeks. The combination of the term "neo " which means new and another "classical "as in the day of Roman and Greek classics. There was the era of enlightenment which emphasised logic and reason. This period was preceded by renaissance period and followed by romantic era. Before renaissance life and literature was mainly dictated by the church, however during renaissance science and innovation was given maim emphasises. In neo classical era a vast difference between the two ideologies can be witnessed. There are confusion and contrary depiction too. Neo classical period ended in 1798 when Wordsworth published the romantic lyrical ballad.
**this age can be divided into three small periods**....
1) restoration period or the age of Dryden (1660-1700) 
2) the age of Pope or Augustan age (1700-1750)
3) the age of Johnson (1750-1798)

*** characterization of neo classical age **
It was the time of comfortableness in England. It was the beginning of the British tradition drinking tea and it was the starting point of middle class .for this reason more people were literate. It was the same time when eight monarchy took throne.

*** the effect of epic poetry ,novels and criticism swept all over Europe during this period. The rape of the lock by Alexander pope , an essay on dramatic criticism and other novels were popular too.

** drama began to decline during this period. This was the age of  theatre  so people became  attracted too much towards actor and actresses rather than playwrights. They were losing their interest in plays and playwrights which were being produced ever. The rise of the novel displaced the drama. Novels appeared as better way to depict life, manners and ideas.
**Revival of old plays hindered the creation of new plays .the plays of Shakespeare ,beauomont and Fletcher were revived. Shakespeare like Romeo Juliet, king Lear were given happy endings.
**the drama of the age failed to receive the support of king. William 3 was no patron of the theatre, nor was queen Anne, nor was the first two Georges, without support of the king. It was difficult for the dramatists to put their influence over the public of the day.
** moral restraint was followed by the political restraint. As a result of freedom fielding and other attacked Walpole 'S government a licensing act was passed and censorship was appeared on the drama. According to the act dramatist couldn't produce plays.

**HEROIC DRAMA ***
Heroic tragedy was called heroic drama. Dryden main supporter of the tragedy called it heroic drama. Plays were written in the classical model of the rhyming couplet and later in blank verse tragedy. Theme was based on the struggle between love and honor. The hero and heroine were cast on grand scale and their dialogues consisted of elaborated speeches in rhymed 10 syallbaled couplets, full of emotions.

*** the place of sentimental and anti sentimental comedies **

sentimental comedies were famous.
1)colley cibber - love's last shift, provoked husband.
2)richard Steele was famous for periodical essays. The lying lover, the tender husband were famous.
3)hugh Kelly =false delicacy
4) Richard Cumberland = he wrote thirty plays. Most of them were tragedies. West Indian and the fashionable lover were his famous comedies.
5) Sheridan = school for scandal
6) Addison, goldsmith were famous too.

Important Writings and writers

😵CONFUSING TITLES😱
Works Authors

🌻Essay on Man - a poem by Pope
🌻Essay on Milton - a prose by Macaulay
🌻Essay on Criticism - a poem by Pope
🌻Essay In Criticism - a prose by Mathew Arnold
🌻Essays of Elia - Charles Lamb
🌻Essays of Ancient & Modern - T. S. Eliot
🌻The Rape of the Lock - epic poem by Pope
🌻The Rape of the Lucrecee - a long poem by Shakespeare
🌻The way of the World - A comedy by William Congrave
🌻The Way of All Flesh - a novel by Samuel Butler.
🌻The Prelude - A poem by William Wordsworth
🌻Preludes - A poem by T. S. Eliot
🌻Elizabethan Essays - Prose by T. S. Eliot
🌻Elizabeth and Essex - prose by Lytton Stretchey
🌻Everyman - One of the best known morality plays.
🌻Everyman in His Humour - Satirical comedy by Ben Jonson.
🌻The Book of The Duchesse - A poem by Chaucer
🌻The Book of Martyrs - a story by John Foxe
🌻The Pilgrim’s Progress - by John Bunyan
🌻The Pilgrim’s of the Rhine - by Bulwer Lytton
🌻The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent – a novel by Sterne
🌻Tristram & Iscult - Matthew Arnold
🌻Lyrical Ballads - Collection poems by Coleridge & Wordsworth
🌻Prefare to Lyrical Bullads - A prose by Wordsworth.
🌻All for love - A blank verse tragedy by Dryden
🌻Love labour lost - A drama by Shakespeare
🌻A portrait of The Artist as a Young man- A novel by Joyce
🌻Portrait of dare - a novel by Francis Bret James
🌻A portrait of A lady - a novel by Henry James
🌻The Duchess of Dadna - a drama by Oscar Wilde
🌻The Duchess of Malfi - tragedy John Webster
🌻A Tale of Two cities - a novel by Dickens
🌻A Tale of Manchester Life - a novel by Mrs. E. Gaskell
🌻The Anatomy of Melancholy - a critique by Robert Burton
🌻The Anatomy of the world - a poem on prince Henry written by
Donne
🌻The Battle of Books - a satire by swift
🌻The Battle of Maldon - Anclo Saxon war poem.
🌻A women killed with kindress - a drama by Heywood
🌻The woman in the Moon - a play by Lily
🌻Ode on The Nativity - a poem by Milton
🌻Ode on Duty - a poem by Wordsworth
🌻1.The shepherd calendar(1579) by spencer.
🌻 The shepherd's calendars with village stories and other poems(1827) by john clare.
🌻2. A defence of poetry (1821) essay by P.B. Shelly written response to his friend Thomas Love Peacock's The four ages of poetry(1820) .
🌻The defency of poesy or An apology for poetry (1595) by sidney it is reply to Stephen Gosson's The School of abuse (1579).
🌻3. Rainbow is a poem by wordsworth,
🌻The Rainbow is a novel by D.H. Lawrence.
🌻4.Passage To India novel (1924)by E.M. Forster.
🌻 A Passage to India poem by Walt Whitman.
🌻A Passage to England (1959)by Nirad C. Chaudhuri
🌻.5.The Portrait of a Lady is a novel(1881) by Henry James.
🌻 A portrait of a lady poem by Eliot.
🌻A Portrait of a lady by william carlos williams (first published in the Dial August 1920)
🌻6. London poem by blake.
🌻London 1802 sonnet by Wordsworth.
🌻England 1819 poem by shelly.
🌻7 the gift of magi -short story by o Henry
🌻Journey of the magi -poem by t.s.Eliot
🌻8 Lord Jim-novel by Joseph Conrad
🌻Lucky Jim-novel by Kinsley Amis
🌻9 an otter-poem by Ted Hughes
🌻The otter-poem by Seamus Heaney
🌻10 utopia-novel by Thomas Moore
🌻A modern utopia-novel by H.G.Wells
🌻11 the casualty-poem by Ted Hughes
🌻Casualty-poem by Seamus Heaney
🌻12 alchemists-play by Ben jonson
🌻Alchemist-novel by Paulo kohalo
🌻13 A vision of judgement-short story by H.G.Wells
🌻A vision of judgement-poem by Robert southy
🌻A vision of judgement-poem by Byron
🌻14 metamorphosis-poem by Ovid
🌻Metamorphosis-novella by Kafka
🌻15 the golden bough-prose by James Frazer
🌻The golden notebook-novel by dorris Lessig
🌻The golden threshold -collection of poem by sarojni naidu.

Origin and Growth of English Drama

#ORIGIN_AND_GROWTH_OF_ENGLISH_DRAMA
☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

💠Drama is a literary composition, which is performed by professional actors on stage (or theatre), before an audience. It involves conflicts, actions and a particular theme. Eye-catching make up, facial expressions and body language of the artists are prominent features.

👉#Origin_of_Drama:

💠Western drama originated in Greece around 500 B.C. Ancient Greek drama consists of three kinds of plays:

👉Tragedy
👉Comedy
👉Satyr plays

👉#Ancient_Greek_Drama:

💠The first tragedies are said to have been performed in 534 B.C. at the festival of Dionysus in Athens Satyr-dramas were added in 501 B.C. Comedies were first officially produced in Athens in 486 B.C. Greek drama flourished in Athens through 500 B.C. to 300 B.C.

💠Athens appears to have been the primary locus of dramatic activity in classical Greece. Comedies were also performed from the beginning of the fifth century B.C. onward in Sicily. The earliest dramas were designed to worship gods and goddesses. Masks were used to represent characters; high-soled boots were worn to add height. Antigone, Oedipus Rex and Medea are among the famous plays written during this time.

👉#Roman_Drama:

💠Roman drama refers to any dramatic form tragedy, comedy, farce, mime and pantomime composed in the Latin language. Latin was used by the inhabitants of the city of Rome and eventually became the administrative language of the Roman republic (509 30 B.C.) and the Roman Empire (30 B.C. 476 A.D.).

💠The Romans witnessed the first form of dramatic performance in Rome in 364 B.C. The people of Tuscany staged the performance in order to help the Romans avert a plague. They performed some form of dance accompanied by flute music. The first official dramatic performance was performed in Rome in 240 B.C. Livius Andronicus stage a tragedy and a comedy at the ludi Romani (Roman games). Livius Andronicus was a Greek slave. It is unclear whether his performances were translations or adaptations of Greek dramas.

👉Roman comedies and tragedies were performed at:

💠Festivals known as Ludi.
Temple dedications.
Triumphal parades.
Funerals of Roman aristocrats.
Roman theaters were temporary wooden structures taken down after the performance.

💠The first stone stage was seen after 55 B.C. Roman nobility funded Roman dramas, the actors themselves were noble.

👉#Fall_of_Rome:

💠With the fall of the Roman Empire, Roman drama comes to its own end. Roman drama and Roman comedy in particular have enduring effect on the Western dramatic tradition.

👉#Death_of_Drama:

💠From the fall of Rome in the late fifth century until the tenth century, the drama was essentially dead. This was due in part to the Romans’ lack of interest in drama and the Christians of late antiquity. Acting was considered unchristian in the early medieval period as Roman Catholic Church banned theatrical performances. Drama remained dead for several years.

👉#The_Rebirth_of_Drama:

💠Drama was reintroduced into Western Europe in the tenth century. Just as drama was born among Greeks a part of religious observances, among Christians it too was reborn as a part of religion. Drama was reborn during The Middle Ages (Medieval Period).

👉#Medieval_Drama:

💠The Christian festival celebration had always included elements that were potentially dramatic. In the 10th century bits of chanted dialogue, called tropes, were added to the Easter celebration. This was the beginning of drama in post-classical Western Europe. These little plays (troops) grew more elaborate. Some of the later Latin plays were elaborate and, taking well over an hour to perform. The purpose of these plays was to teach religion.

👉#Late_Medieval_Drama:

💠A great deal of dramatic material is found in the late 12th and early 13th centuries and the 14th century. Most of it is religious. These plays can be divided into:

💠The mystery plays – life of Christ.
Miracle plays – lives of saints.
Morality plays – being good/ moral.

👉#Renaissance_Drama:

💠The English Renaissance, a cultural and artistic movement in England from 16th to early 17th century. It paved the way for the dominance of drama in the country. Queen Elizabeth I ruled during the period Great poetry and drama were produced. The renowned playwrights of this time include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and John Webster.

💠The dramatists wrote plays based on themes like history, comedy and tragedy. Shakespeare emerged as an artist who produced plays based on all the three themes. Drama had previously been performed in temporary spaces. In 1567 the first public theater, the Red Lion Theatre in White chapel, was built. With the establishment of public theaters and acting companies the demand for plays was met by a group of highly educated men who were deeply educated in classical literature.

👉#Modern_Drama:

💠Modern Drama begins in the late nineteenth century and continues to the present day. By the late nineteenth century the Industrial Revolution and other economic changes insured that prosperous, educated middle-class people comprise the majority of theater- goers.

💠Romanticism gave way to Realism during the 19th century, paving the way for the era of contemporary drama in the20th century. Contemporary drama shows the influence of all that has come before. Modern drama involved much experimentation with new forms and ideas.

💠In the early part of the 20th century, musical drama came to dominate stages in New York and England, although each theater season saw the release of straight dramatic plays as well. The renowned playwrights of this time include W. S. Gilbert, Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw.

👉#Present_Time:

💠The majority of musical dramas of the 20th century were written by Andrew Lloyd Webber. His works gained immense popularity. The dramas traveled to Broadway in New York and around the world. Some of them were turned into feature films as well.

💠Postmodernism had a serious effect on the existence of English drama, in the end of 20th century. However, a large number of theatres still exist around Shaftesbury Avenue, in the western part of London. The Royal Shakespeare Company, operating from Stratford-upon-Avon (Shakespeare’s hometown), currently produces most of the plays written by the legendary dramatist.

👉#Conclusion:

💠Drama in Western Europe was started by Greeks which influenced most of the dramas in Rome. As the world saw the fall of Roman Empire, the drama died as well. Drama was reborn in the early Medieval time as part of religion.

💠People like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and John Webster changed the way dramas were perceived during Renaissance. The modern drama is still much alive but most people are starting to take more interest in other sources of entertainment.

Linguistic -learning through small facts

Linguistic🌷🌹😊👇

#Articulatory_Phonetics

The production of speech involves 3 processes:
Initiation: Setting air in motion through the vocal tract.
Phonation: The modification of airflow as it passes through the larynx (related to voicing).
Articulation: The shaping of airflow to generate particular sound types (related to manner)


Articulatory phonetics refers to the “aspects of phonetics which looks at how the sounds of speech are made with the organs of the vocal tract” Ogden (2009:173).
Articulatory phonetics can be seen as divided up into three areas to describe consonants. These are voice, place and manner respectively. Each of these will now be discussed separately, although all three areas combine together in the production of speech.


⭐⏩1) Voice

In English we have both voiced and voiceless sounds. A sound fits into one of these categories according to how the vocal folds behave when a speech sound is produced.

Voiced: Voiced sounds are sounds that involve vocal fold vibrations when they are produced. Examples of voiced sounds are /b,d,v,m/.

If you place two fingers on either side of the front of your neck, just below your jawbone, and produce a sound, you should be able to feel a vibrating sensation. This tells you that a sound is voiced.

Voiceless: Voiceless sounds are sounds that are produced with no vocal fold vibration. Examples of voiceless sounds in English are /s,t,p,f/.

⭐⏩2) Place

The vocal tract is made up of different sections, which play a pivotal role in the production of speech. These sections are called articulators and are what make speech sounds possible. They can be divided into two types.

The active articulator is the articulator that moves towards another articulator in the production of a speech sound. This articulator moves towards another articulator to form a closure of some type in the vocal tract (i.e open approximation, close, etc – define)

The passive articulator is the articulator that remains stationary in the production of a speech sound. Often, this is the destination that the active articulator moves towards (i.e the hard palate).



I will now talk about the different places of articulation in the vocal tract

#Bilabial: Bilabial sounds involve the upper and lower lips. In the production of a bilabial sound, the lips come into contact with each other to form an effective constriction. In English, /p,b,m/ are bilabial sounds.


#Labiodental: Labiodental sounds involve the lower lip (labial) and upper teeth (dental) coming into contact with each other to form an effective constriction in the vocal tract. Examples of labiodental sounds in English are /f,v/. Labiodental sounds can be divided into two types.

a) #Endolabial: sounds produced where the upper teeth are pressed against the inside of the lower lip.

b) #Exolabial: sounds produced where the upper teeth are pressed against the outer side of the lower lip.



#Dental: Dental sounds involve the tongue tip (active articulator) making contact with the upper teeth to form a constriction. Examples of Dental sounds in English are / θ, ð/.   If a sound is produced where the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth, it is attributed the term ‘interdental’.


#Alveolar: First of all, before I explain what an alveolar sound is, it’s useful to locate the alveolar ridge itself. If you place your tongue just behind your teeth and move it around, you’ll feel a bony sort of ridge. This is known as the alveolar ridge. Alveolar sounds involve the front portion of the tongue making contact with the alveolar ridge to form an effective constriction in the vocal tract. Examples of alveolar sounds in English are /t,d,n,l,s/.


#Postalveolar: Postalveolar sounds are made a little further back (‘post’) from the alveolar ridge. A postalveolar sound is produced when the blade of the tongue comes into contact with the post-alveolar region of your mouth. Examples of post-alveolar sounds in English are /  ʃ, ʒ    /.


#Palatal: Palatal sounds are made with the tongue body (the big, fleshy part of your tongue). The tongue body raises up towards the hard-palate in your mouth (the dome shaped roof of your mouth) to form an effective constriction. An example of a palatal sounds in English is /j/, usually spelt as <y>.


#Velar: Velar sounds are made when the back of the tongue (tongue dorsum) raises towards the soft palate, which is located at the back of the roof of the mouth. This soft palate is known as the velum. An effective constriction is then formed when these two articulators come into contact with each other. Examples of velar sounds in English are /k,g ŋ  /.


⭐⏩3) Manner

In simple terms, the manner of articulation refers to the way a sound is made, as opposed to where it’s made. Sounds differ in the way they are produced. When the articulators are brought towards each other, the flow of air differs according to the specific sound type. For instance, the airflow can be completely blocked off or made turbulent.



⭐⏩1) Stop articulations:

Stop articulations are sounds that involve a complete closure in the vocal tract. The closure is formed when two articulators come together to prevent air escaping between them. Stop articulations can be categorized according to the kind of airflow involved. The type of airflow can be oral (plosives) or nasal (nasals). I will now talk about both plosives and nasals separately.

1a) #Plosives: are sounds that are made with a complete closure in the oral (vocal) tract.  The velum is raised during a plosive sound, which prevents air from escaping via the nasal cavity. English plosives are the sounds /p,b,t,d,k,g/. Plosives can be held for quite a long time and are thus also called ‘maintainable stops’.



1b) Nasals are similar to plosives in regards to being sounds that are made with a complete closure in the oral (vocal) tract. However, the velum is lowered during nasal sounds, which allows airflow to escape through the nasal cavity. There are 3 nasal sounds that occur in English /m,n, ŋ/



⭐⏩2) Fricatives:

Fricative sounds are produced by narrowing the distance between the active and passive articulators causing them to be in close approximation. This causes the airflow to become turbulent when it passes between the two articulators involved in producing a fricative sound. English fricatives are sounds such as / f,v, θ,ð, s,z, ʃ,ʒ     /



⭐⏩3) Approximants:

Approximant sounds are created by narrowing the distance between the two articulators. Although, unlike fricatives, the distance isn’t wide enough to create turbulent airflow.  English has 4 approximant sounds which are /w,j,r,l/.



#Vowels

When it comes to vowels, we use a different specification to describe them. We look at the vertical position of the tongue, the horizontal position of the tongue and lip position.

Vowels are made with a free passage of airflow down the mid-line of the vocal tract. They are usually voiced and are produced without friction.



⭐⏩1) Vertical tongue position (close-open): vertical tongue position refers to how close the tongue is to the roof of the mouth in the production of a vowel. If the tongue is close, it is given the label close. However, if the tongue is low in the mouth when a vowel is produced, it’s given the label open.  + close-mid/open mid (see below).



Some examples of open vowels: ɪ, ʊ

Some examples of close vowels: æ, ɒ,



⭐⏩2) Horizontal tongue position (front, mid, back): Horizontal tongue refers to where the tongue is positioned in the vocal tract in terms of ‘at the front’ or ‘at the back’ when a vowel is produced. If the tongue is at the front of the mouth it’s given the label front, if the tongue is in the middle of the mouth it’s given the label mid and if the tongue is at the back of the mouth it’s given the label back.

Some examples of front vowels: ɪ , e, æ

Some examples of mid vowels: ə

Some examples of back vowels:  ʌ,ɒ



⏩3) Lip position: As is inferred, lip position concerns the position of the lips when a vowel is produced. The lips can either be round, spread or neutral.

Examples of round vowels: u, o

Examples of spread vowels: ɪ, ɛ



There are also different categories of vowels, for example: monophthongs and diphthongs.



#Monophthongs: Monophthongs are vowels that are produced by a relatively stable tongue position.

Monophthongs can be divided into two categories according to their duration. These are long and short vowels and their duration is mirrored in their names.

Examples of short vowels: e, æ, ɪ, ʊ

Examples of long vowels: ɔ: ɜ:, i:, u:



#Diphthongs: Diphthongs are vowels where the tongue moves from one part of the mouth to another. They seen as starting of as one vowel and ending as a different vowel.

Concise facts on A portrait of an Artist as a young man

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is a novel by the Irish modernist writer James Joyce. It follows the intellectual, moral and spiritual development of a young Catholic Irishman, Stephen Dedalus, and his struggle against the restrictions his culture imposes. Portrait can be placed in the tradition of the bildungsroman – novels that trace the personal development of the protagonist, usually from childhood through to adulthood. Joyce contrasts the rebellion and the experimentation of adolescence with the sombre influence of Stephen’s Catholic education. For example, his startled enjoyment of a sexual experience in chapter two is followed by the famous ‘Hellfire sermon’ in chapter three which leaves him fearing for his soul. The name Dedalus links to Ovid’s mythological story of Daedalus – the ‘old artificer’ – and his son Icarus, who flies too close to the sun. We are reminded of this image when Stephen tells his friend Davin: ‘When the soul of a man is born in this country there are nets flung at it to hold it back from flight. You talk to me of nationality, language, religion. I shall try to fly by those nets’.

Though the technique used in much of the novel’s narration can be described as ‘stream-of-consciousness’, some critics complain that this term tells us little about the effect it achieves. Joyce traces Stephen’s various stages of development, by adjusting the style of his language as his protagonist grows up. From the baby-talk of the opening, to the high-minded aesthetic discussion towards the end, Joyce’s language play mimics Stephen’s phonetic, linguistic and intellectual growth. By the end of the novel, Stephen has resolved to follow his calling as an artist and to leave Ireland in order to ‘forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race’.

In many respects, the novel represents Joyce’s own artistic development, and Stephen plays out fictionalised versions of many of his author’s experiences: the episode surrounding the death of the disgraced Irish home-rule leader Charles Stuart Parnell has many similarities with the arguments this event caused in the Joyce household.

The novel was serialised in the modernist magazine, The Egoist, between 1914 and 15, starting on 2 February (Joyce’s 32nd birthday), and printed as a complete book in 1916 in the US and in 1917 in the UK (though the editions are dated 1916).