WB SLST English : Critics comments on the Writings of Wb SLST

 WB SLST English : Critics comments on the Writings of Wb SLST 

📘 Poetry

1. Wordsworth – Lucy Poems

Francis Jeffrey: “A lover trots away… ‘If Lucy should be dead!’ And there the poem ends!” (mockery of simplicity).

John Wilson: “Powerfully pathetic.”

2. Wordsworth – The World Is Too Much with Us

Matthew Arnold: “Wordsworth is the poet of the healing power of Nature.”

3. Shelley – Ode to the West Wind

Leigh Hunt: “The trumpet of prophecy.”

4. Shelley – To a Skylark

Arthur Symons: “The skylark is not a bird, it is a spirit.”

5. Keats – Ode to a Nightingale

T. S. Eliot: “Keats’s odes are perfect poems… the very voice of poetry itself.”

6. Keats – To Autumn

Harold Bloom: “The most perfect short poem in the English language.”

7. Tennyson – Ulysses

Matthew Arnold: “Poetry of nobility and high seriousness.”

8. Browning – The Last Ride Together

George Saintsbury: “A noble and novel view of love’s defeat.”

9. Hardy – The Darkling Thrush

Lionel Johnson: “A song of hope in the midst of desolation.”

10. Yeats – The Wild Swans at Coole

Cleanth Brooks: “An image of changeless beauty against human transience.

11. Owen – Strange Meeting

W. B. Yeats (ironically dismissive): “Passive suffering is not a theme for poetry.”

Edmund Blunden (supportive): “A masterpiece of tragic pity.”

12. de la Mare – The Listeners

Walter de la Mare himself: “It is but a mood caught in words.”

Critics often call it “the finest ghostly lyric of English poetry."

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🎭 Drama

1. Goldsmith – She Stoops to Conquer

Dr. Johnson: “I know of no comedy for many years that has so much exhilarated an audience.”

2. Shaw – Arms and the Man

Shaw himself (in preface): “An anti-romantic comedy of love and war.”

William Archer: praised it as “a delightful exposure of military romance.”

3. Galsworthy – Justice

The Times review (1910): “A most moving appeal for prison reform.”

Harley Granville-Barker: “The theatre used as an engine of social justice.”

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📖 Prose & Short Stories

1. Lamb – Dream Children

Swinburne: “A sweetness like no other fragrance, a magic like no second spell in letters.”

2. Conrad – The Lagoon

Edward Garnett: praised Conrad’s “psychological depth and atmosphere.”

3. Maugham – The Lotos-Eater

Richard Cordell: “A parable of escape and its price.”

4. O. Henry – The Gift of the Magi

Burton Raffel: “The purest expression of O. Henry’s ironic humanism.”

5. H. E. Bates – The Ox

V. S. Pritchett: admired Bates’s “tender, exact prose of rural life.”

✍️ Essays

1. Lamb – Dream Children

(Already above with Swinburne).

2. L. A. Hill – Principles of Good Writing

Critics of language teaching note Hill as “the champion of clarity and simplicity in modern English prose. 

MCQs on Uncommon Poetic Devices for WB ENGLISH SLST 2025

mock set of MCQs on uncommon poetic devices (like the WB SLST exam might ask).

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🌟 MCQs on Uncommon Poetic Devices

Q1. Identify the figure of speech: “The crown will decide the nation’s future.”

a) Synecdoche

b) Metonymy

c) Apostrophe

d) Chiasmus

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Q2. “O Death, where is thy sting?” is an example of—

a) Apostrophe

b) Oxymoron

c) Paradox

d) Enjambment

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Q3. In “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (Shakespeare), the figure of speech is—

a) Zeugma

b) Chiasmus

c) Antithesis

d) Polyptoton

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Q4. “He stole my heart and my wallet.” → Which device?

a) Zeugma

b) Irony

c) Litotes

d) Metonymy

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Q5. “This is not an unkind remark.” → Which device?

a) Hyperbole

b) Litotes

c) Oxymoron

d) Paradox

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Q6. “Here comes the sun.” → Which device is used in word order?

a) Apostrophe

b) Inversion

c) Synecdoche

d) Anaphora

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Q7. In “O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn’s being!” (Shelley), the device is—

a) Personification

b) Apostrophe

c) Alliteration

d) Hyperbole

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Q8. “The child is father of the man.” → This is a—

a) Paradox

b) Oxymoron

c) Epistrophe

d) Synecdoche

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Q9. “To err is human || to forgive, divine.” The mid-line pause is called—

a) Caesura

b) Enjambment

c) Ellipsis

d) Epistrophe

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Q10. “Love is not love / Which alters when it alteration finds.” (Shakespeare, Sonnet 116). Repetition of the root word alter is—

a) Alliteration

b) Polyptoton

c) Anaphora

d) Refrain

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✅ Answer Key

1 → b) Metonymy

2 → a) Apostrophe

3 → b) Chiasmus

4 → a) Zeugma

5 → b) Litotes

6 → b) Inversion

7 → b) Apostrophe

8 → a) Paradox

9 → a) Caesura

10 → b) Polyptoton

Wb SLST 2025 ENGLISH GRAMMAR UNCOMMON POETIC DEVICES REVISION

 Uncommon #PoeticDevices: Quick Notes For West Bengal #SLST English Revision 2025

Device Definition (Easy) Example

Synecdoche 

Part used for whole or whole for part All hands on deck (hands = sailors)

Metonymy 

One word replaced with something closely linked 

The pen is mightier than the sword

Anaphora 

Repetition at beginning of lines/clauses We shall fight… we shall fight…

Epistrophe 

Repetition at end of lines/clauses Of the people, by the people, for the people

Chiasmus 

Reversal of structure Fair is foul, and foul is fair

Zeugma 

One verb/adjective used for two different objects He stole my heart and my wallet

Litotes 

Understatement using negative He is not a bad singer

Transferred Epithet 

Adjective applied to wrong noun He spent a restless night

Apostrophe 

Direct address to absent person/idea/object O Death, where is thy sting?

Enjambment 

Continuation of a line into the next without pause 

A thing of beauty is a joy forever: / Its loveliness increases…

Caesura 

A pause in the middle of a line *To err is human

Paradox Seeming contradiction but true The child is father of the man

Oxymoron 

Two opposite words together Sweet sorrow, deafening silence

Polyptoton 

Repetition of same root word Love is not love / Which alters when it alteration finds.

WEST Bengal ENGLISH SLST MOCK TEST 2025

 WEST BENGAL 2nd SLST MOCK TEST 2025

Sub : English in IX-X Category, 

👉 60 MCQS 

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✔️Section A: Poetry :

1. In "The World is Too Much With Us", Wordsworth condemns mankind’s:

A) Religious indifference

B) War-like tendencies

C) Materialism

D) Political views

2. "To a Skylark" by Shelley portrays the bird as:

A) A symbol of love

B) A night predator

C) A spiritual inspirer

D) A common bird

3. "Ode to the West Wind" ends with a hope for:

A) Destruction

B) Immortality

C) Rebirth

D) Silence

4. Which season is personified in "Ode to Autumn"?

A) Winter

B) Autumn

C) Summer

D) Spring

5. The dominant theme of "Ulysses" is:

A) Domestic joy

B) Heroic restlessness

C) Romantic love

D) Social criticism

6. Browning's "The Last Ride Together" is a blend of:

A) Comedy and satire

B) Tragedy and revenge

C) Passion and philosophy

D) Religion and myth

7. In "The Darkling Thrush", the thrush is a symbol of:

A) Old age

B) Death

C) Hope

D) Futility

8. "The Wild Swans at Coole" reveals Yeats’s:

A) Political views

B) Religious belief

C) Poetic rivalry

D) Emotional aging

9. Wilfred Owen's "Strange Meeting" is set in:

A) A battlefield hospital

B) A dreamlike underworld

C) A churchyard

D) A prison

10. “The Listeners” by Walter de la Mare evokes:

A) Joyful mood

B) Mystery and silence

C) Romantic celebration

D) Allegorical fantasy

11. Wordsworth’s Lucy Poems often represent:

A) Revolutionary thoughts

B) Idealized rural simplicity

C) Political satire

D) Urban chaos

12. “To a Skylark” is a/an:

A) Satire

B) Sonnet

C) Narrative

D) Lyrical apostrophe

13. “Ulysses” ends with the resolve to:

A) Die in peace

B) Continue striving

C) Return to Penelope

D) Settle in Ithaca

14. Shelley invokes the West Wind as:

A) A destroyer and preserver

B) A gentle breeze

C) A healing force

D) A seasonal poem

15. In “Strange Meeting”, Owen uses:

A) Allegory

B) Dramatic monologue

C) Elegy

D) Satire

16. “The Wild Swans at Coole” represents:

A) Political debate

B) Personal loss and aging

C) Satirical tone

D) Comic relief

17. In "The Darkling Thrush", the landscape is depicted as:

A) Lush and thriving

B) Joyous and lively

C) Bleak and wintry

D) Festive and warm

18. Which poetic device is most used in "To a Skylark"?

A) Oxymoron

B) Apostrophe

C) Hyperbole

D) Paradox

19. “The Last Ride Together” reflects:

A) Political ambition

B) Stoic acceptance

C) Mystical denial

D) Marital bliss

20. In “The Listeners,” the Traveller is:

A) Welcomed

B) Banished

C) Ignored

D) Attacked

✔️Section B: Drama :

_______________________________________

21. Who disguises herself in "She Stoops to Conquer"?

A) Mrs. Hardcastle

B) Miss Neville

C) Kate Hardcastle

D) Lady Marlow

22. "Arms and the Man" critiques:

A) British monarchy

B) Romantic ideals of war

C) Courtly manners

D) Education system

23. Raina’s chocolate-cream soldier is actually a:

A) Spy

B) Cook

C) Professional soldier

D) Serbian officer

24. In "Justice", the central issue is:

A) Police brutality

B) Judicial cruelty

C) Prison reform and mercy

D) Political corruption

25. Bluntschli is contrasted with:

A) Catherine

B) Petkoff

C) Sergius

D) Louka

26. In “Justice”, the playwright criticizes:

A) Poverty

B) Hypocrisy

C) Legal system’s inhumanity

D) Democracy

27. “She Stoops to Conquer” is an example of:

A) Romantic drama

B) Farcical comedy

C) Melodrama

D) History play

28. Sergius is often described as:

A) A brave realist

B) A coward

C) A pompous romantic

D) A servant in disguise

29. Galworthy’s tone in "Justice" can be best described as:

A) Sarcastic

B) Melancholic

C) Sympathetic

D) Ironic

30. The subplot in "She Stoops to Conquer" involves:

A) A duel

B) Tony and Miss Neville

C) Kate’s marriage to Hastings

D) Marlow’s father

✔️Section C: Short Story and Essay :

_______________________________________

31. The central theme of “The Gift of the Magi” is:

A) Irony and sacrifice

B) Inheritance

C) Greed and punishment

D) Religion

32. In “The Ox”, the protagonist is:

A) A nursemaid with suppressed anger

B) A bold teacher

C) An abusive aunt

D) A lazy stepmother

33. "The Lotos Eater" by Maugham deals with:

A) British imperialism

B) A man escaping responsibility

C) Greek mythology

D) Drug abuse

34. Conrad’s “Lagoon” is set in:

A) Africa

B) India

C) Malay jungle

D) Pacific islands

35. The narrator in “The Ox” is:

A) The woman’s husband

B) Her child

C) Her employer

D) A neighbor

36. Arsat in "Lagoon" tells the story of:

A) His love and guilt

B) His escape from war

C) British colonizers

D) His merchant life

37. “Dream Children” reflects:

A) Satirical style

B) Humorous commentary

C) Deep personal sorrow

D) Political turmoil

38. In “The Lotos Eater”, the protagonist’s choice leads to:

A) Fame

B) Madness and poverty

C) Redemption

D) Employment

39. O. Henry’s famous style includes:

A) Poetic devices

B) Dramatic endings

C) Twist in the tale

D) Mythical allegory

40. “The Ox” can be seen as:

A) An allegory

B) A horror story

C) A comic tale

D) A psychological study

41. Lamb’s “Dream Children” is:

A) A dramatic monologue

B) A fantasy memoir

C) A satirical parody

D) A travelogue

42. Arsat’s brother dies because:

A) He is betrayed

B) He is old

C) He is greedy

D) He helps Arsat escape

43. “The Gift of the Magi” is set during:

A) Summer

B) Christmas

C) Easter

D) Autumn

44. “The Lotos Eater” originally refers to:

A) Roman myth

B) Irish folklore

C) Homer’s Odyssey

D) Dante’s Inferno

45. In “The Ox”, the woman is likened to:

A) A witch

B) An ox

C) A snake

D) A queen

✔️Section D: Grammar and Usage :

_______________________________________

46. Identify the correct sentence:

A) She don’t like coffee.

B) She doesn’t likes coffee.

C) She doesn’t like coffee.

D) She don’t likes coffee.

47. Choose the correct form: “Each of the boys ___ given a book.”

A) were

B) have

C) has

D) are

48. Identify the relative clause:

A) He runs fast.

B) I met a man who knew you.

C) It rained heavily.

D) She sang loudly.

49. Choose the sentence with correct use of articles:

A) He is an honest man.

B) He is a honest man.

C) He is the honest man.

D) He is honest man.

50. “He said, ‘I am going now.’” Change into indirect speech:

A) He said he is going now.

B) He said he was going then.

C) He said I am going now.

D) He says he went then.

51. Choose the complex sentence:

A) He ran fast and won.

B) Although he was late, he attended the class.

C) He wrote a letter.

D) He came, he saw.

52. Which is a simple sentence?

A) She cooked and he cleaned.

B) Although he was ill, he worked.

C) He laughed.

D) When she came, I was eating.

53. Identify the correct narration:

A) He asked what is my name.

B) He asked what was my name.

C) He asked what my name was.

D) He asked what my name is.

54. Choose the grammatically correct sentence:

A) She sing well.

B) She sings well.

C) She singing well.

D) She sangs well.

55. Identify the sentence with a mood of suggestion:

A) Go and study now.

B) You might do better.

C) I wish I were rich.

D) Let’s go out.

56. "He is taller than ___ in the class." Choose the correct pronoun.

A) any

B) all

C) everyone

D) anyone else

57. Combine: “He failed. He worked hard.”

A) Although he worked hard, he failed.

B) He failed and worked hard.

C) He failed when he worked hard.

D) He failed as he worked hard.

58. Direct to indirect: “She said, ‘Do it now.’”

A) She told me to do it then.

B) She said me do it now.

C) She asked me did it then.

D) She says do it now.

59. Choose the correct voice:

A) The song sung by her.

B) The song was sung by her.

C) The song were sung by her.

D) The song was sing by her.

60. Choose the sentence in passive voice:

A) They completed the task.

B) The task was completed.

C) She is cooking.

D) He sings.

_______________________________________

Answer Key:

1. C 2. C 3. C 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. C 8. D 9. B 10. B  

11. B 12. D 13. B 14. A 15. B 16. B 17. C 18. B 19. B 20. C  

21. C 22. B 23. C 24. C 25. C 26. C 27. B 28. C 29. C 30. B  

31. A 32. A 33. B 34. C 35. C 36. A 37. C 38. B 39. C 40. D  

41. B 42. D 43. B 44. C 45. B  

46. C 47. C 48. B 49. A 50. B 51. B 52. C 53. C 54. B 55. D  

56. D 57. A 58. A 59. B 60. B

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Critical commentary on Ode to Autumn by John Keats

 John Keats' *To Autumn* is one of his most celebrated odes, composed in 1819, and demonstrates complete mastery over the materials of the Romantic tradition. It is a richly sensory and deeply reflective ode to autumn. The following is a critical interpretation of the poem, focused on its themes, structure, language, and philosophical undercurrents.

### **Celebration of Autumn and the Natural World**

Keats's To Autumn is a meditation on the season as the moment of ripeness, completion, and the gentle transition into another season. While other poems describe spring or summer as the pinnacle of natural beauty, Keats attests to autumn's less showy, more mature phase in the cycle. For him, there is no rot but rather the absolute fullness of nature.

Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness," the poem starts, immediately grounding the reader in an atmosphere of richness and fulfillment. The fruits are heavy with ripeness, the fields full of harvested grain, and even the small creatures like bees are intoxicated by the late-blooming flowers. In this way, *To Autumn* is a hymn to the fullness and fruitfulness of nature: tasting the ripeness of life before it falls into decline in winter.

### Themes of Time and Transience

Behind Keats' paean to autumn lies a consciousness of time and evanescence. The season of ripeness marks also the end of the growing season, foreshadowing the advent of winter. However, Keats does not pessimistically stay in decay; instead, he sees beauty in the cyclical pattern of life. Autumn ripeness, after all does yield to decline; but Keats has that turn toward decay into a positive direction: change and transition as elements within life's eternal cycle.

This acknowledgment of transience aligns with Keats' broader philosophical vision, sometimes described using the term "negative capability"—his belief in his ability to bear uncertainty and mystery and not to be overmuch resolved into convictions of what is right or wrong. *In To Autumn*, Keats celebrates the ephemeral beauty of the season, in full awareness of its impermanence, but finds pleasure in this perfect moment of its being.

### **Imagery and Sensory Experience**

Poem *To Autumn* has many characteristics; one is its rich, sensory imagery. Keats engages all the senses while describing the visible images of the season. All are involved: the sights and sounds, even the feel of the season, in his rich vocabulary and keen detail to draw pictures of the fruit, the gourds swollen with ripeness, and the "budding more" that stretches out the bees' life. This first stanza is especially focused on aspects of sight and touch, portrayals of the natural world at its prime.

Keats becomes more centered upon sound as the poem progresses. In the second stanza, autumn is personified as a figure lying or laboring in the fields, and, in the third, he introduces the "music" of autumn, that is, the soft, mournful sounds of the season: the "wailful choir" of gnats, the bleating lambs, and the singing crickets. This sense chronology illustrates the languid draining of the season, as summer's mad energies give up to autumn's more sedate and contemplative rhythm.

### Anthropomorphism of Autumn

Keats anthropomorphizes autumn in the second stanza quite dramatically. He represents this season as an "out-door laborer,/ Sitting careless on a granary floor," resting after a long season of labor, or lying asleep in a field in which he has gathered in the harvest. Keats has given human-like qualities to the autumn season, thus breathing life and personality into it. Therefore, autumn was not only a natural phenomenon; it is that can be felt and viewed intimately, almost as an acquaintance.

This personification also evokes the sense that autumn is, like a man, experiencing his cycles of work, repose, and a silent, slow existence. This adds layers to Keats' description of the season as being more than a simple phase of the year but as metaphorical expression for life's rhythms of action and repose.

### Structure and Form

*To Autumn* consists of three stanzas with eleven lines each. In this regard it is a poetically balanced and controlled piece that mirrors the poem's calm and well-balanced mood. The rhyme scheme - ABAB CDE DCCE enhances this further sense of harmony and order. Keats' exactly controlled form very much reflects the completeness and fulfillment of the season of autumn. The stanzaic structure mirrors the natural cycles and rhythms of life that Keats celebrates.

### **Philosophical Implication**

More profoundly, *To Autumn* is a meditation in mortality or the embracing of impermanence. As autumn commemorates winter's approach and the end of the year is at hand, Keats does not treat it with something melancholy or regretful. He rather evokes the beauty of it in its own self. This reflects a bigger concern with the fleeting nature of human existence involved in the search for meaning and beauty within that transience.

Therefore, the poem is often viewed as mature reflection on life and death. Rather than lamenting the lost time, Keats holds some peace in the cycle of life in which every existence comes to be, grows, and then declines. The quiet and reflective rhythm of the poem underscores acceptance of this natural process and even an element of satisfaction in the knowledge that just as autumn stands still, so too does life.

### **Conclusion**

*To Autumn* is a rich, textured poem that catches the whole warmth and beauty of the season. Deeply and vividly using sensory imagery, the poem reflects on life and time with reverberations of personification and philosophical undertones in this fruitfulness of time and inevitable passage of life. Keats's ode is finally an ode to the existing moment, urging the reader to revel in the richness of the world even as it readies itself for its disappearance. It is his acceptance of transience and ability to find beauty within the mundane aspects of nature that form the words of the lovely lines, which make this a profound and most long-lasting piece of work.

Critical Commentary On The Rape of the Lock By Pope

 Alexander Pope's *The Rape of the Lock* (1712, revised 1714) is a mock-epic that satirizes the trivialities of upper-class society, particularly their preoccupation with appearances and superficial matters. Here’s a critical commentary on some of the poem’s themes, techniques, and its social context:

### **Mock Epic Form**

Pope's *The Rape of the Lock* is written in the form of a mock epic, a literary form that uses the grand, elevated style of classical epics to describe a trivial or absurd subject. In this case, the poem recounts the cutting of a lock of hair from the protagonist, Belinda, by the Baron, an event treated with the same reverence as great battles in *The Iliad* or *The Aeneid*. The mock epic is used here to highlight the absurdity of how the aristocracy overvalues minor events while remaining indifferent to significant societal issues.

Pope’s imitation of epic conventions—such as the invocation to the muse, the use of supernatural forces (sylphs), and the description of "heroic" battles (the card game Ombre)—underscores the emptiness of the concerns of fashionable society. This structural parody exposes the misplaced priorities of the people he criticizes.

### **Satire of 18th Century Society**

Pope's poem critiques the vanity, materialism, and triviality of the 18th-century aristocracy. Belinda, for example, is more concerned with her appearance and social standing than with anything of substance. The Baron, too, covets Belinda’s lock of hair not out of love but for the sake of possessing something rare and beautiful, highlighting the objectification of women.

The poem ridicules a culture where personal slights, such as the theft of a lock of hair, are blown out of proportion, while larger moral and societal issues are neglected. It mirrors a world where outward beauty and reputation are prized above intelligence or integrity, reflecting Pope's critique of a society deeply invested in superficial social rituals.

### **Supernatural Elements**

The sylphs and other supernatural beings in the poem are Pope’s playful nod to the classical epic tradition, but they also serve a satirical purpose. These spirits, led by Ariel, are tasked with protecting Belinda's honor, which is reduced to ensuring the perfection of her beauty. Their involvement elevates the trivial matter of the stolen lock to the level of divine intervention, further mocking the values of the society Pope is critiquing. The sylphs' concern with preserving Belinda’s beauty rather than her virtue hints at the hollow preoccupations of the time.

### **Treatment of Gender and Sexual Politics**

Pope’s portrayal of women in *The Rape of the Lock* reflects both satire and critique. While Belinda is vain and frivolous, the social environment she inhabits pressures women to define their worth based on appearance and desirability. Through Belinda, Pope critiques how women’s power in 18th-century society was largely constrained to physical beauty and social influence. The Baron’s theft of the lock can also be read as a metaphor for how men often took liberties with women’s autonomy.

Though the poem’s tone is light and playful, Pope's mock-heroic treatment of the event subtly critiques how women’s honor and virtue were tied disproportionately to their outward appearance and social reputation, while their agency in serious matters was limited.

### **Language and Wit**

Pope’s masterful use of heroic couplets is one of the defining features of *The Rape of the Lock*. His tight control of form and his playful yet biting wit enhance the satirical nature of the poem. Pope’s ability to combine high-flown, grandiose language with trivial subject matter creates an amusing and ironic contrast, underscoring the absurdity of the social mores he critiques.

His famous lines, such as "What mighty contests rise from trivial things," encapsulate the core irony of the poem—the significant consequences placed on the trivial actions of the aristocracy, mocking the disproportionate attention given to superficial issues.

### **Social Commentary**

The poem provides a critical lens through which Pope observes the values of his contemporary society. He targets both the aristocracy's obsession with material wealth and the artificial nature of their lives, which is filled with meaningless rituals and concerns. Through Belinda and the Baron's conflict, Pope reveals a society where individuals are caught in cycles of vanity, self-importance, and idle pleasure.

### Conclusion

*The Rape of the Lock* is a brilliant example of satire in the mock-epic genre, using humor, parody, and wit to highlight the absurdities of 18th-century aristocratic society. Pope’s careful blend of classical allusion, satire, and elegant poetic form enables him to critique the trivial preoccupations of the wealthy and the way they disregard more substantial moral and social concerns. Despite its lighthearted tone, the poem remains a pointed commentary on the values and behaviors of the time.

compare and contrast between the poem Ulysses by Tennyson and the novel Ulysses by James Joyce

 While both Ulysses by Alfred, Lord Tennyson and Ulysses by James Joyce share the same title and draw inspiration from the mythological figure of Odysseus/Ulysses, they differ significantly in their content, style, and thematic concerns.

1. Style and Structure:

Tennyson's poem follows a traditional and formal poetic structure, utilizing blank verse and a consistent rhyme scheme. The language is elevated and lyrical, with a clear narrative structure and a focus on the inner thoughts and aspirations of Ulysses. In contrast, Joyce's Ulysses is a modernist novel characterized by its experimental narrative techniques and stream-of-consciousness writing. The novel is divided into 18 chapters, each employing a distinct narrative style and exploring the thoughts, experiences, and perspectives of various characters over the course of a single day.

2. Perspective and Characterization:

Tennyson's Ulysses presents a heroic and mythological figure. Ulysses is depicted as a restless adventurer yearning for new experiences, symbolizing the spirit of exploration and individualism. The poem primarily focuses on Ulysses' perspective and portrays him as a heroic protagonist. In contrast, Joyce's Ulysses presents a more complex and realistic portrayal of everyday life in early 20th-century Dublin. The novel features multiple characters, including Leopold Bloom, Stephen Dedalus, and Molly Bloom, and delves into their mundane routines, desires, and inner thoughts. The characters in Joyce's novel are flawed, ordinary individuals, offering a more nuanced and relatable portrayal of humanity.

3. Themes and Concerns:

Tennyson's Ulysses explores themes of adventure, nostalgia, the passage of time, and individualism. It reflects the Victorian fascination with progress, exploration, and the longing for a romanticized past. The poem celebrates the pursuit of personal fulfillment and the desire to break away from societal expectations. On the other hand, Joyce's Ulysses delves into themes of identity, sexuality, religion, politics, and the complexities of human relationships. It provides a critical and satirical commentary on Dublin society and engages with modernist concerns, such as fragmentation, uncertainty, and the exploration of the human psyche.

4. Reception and Influence:

Tennyson's Ulysses was well-received during the Victorian era and has remained a celebrated poem in English literature. It has influenced subsequent works and has been quoted and referenced in various contexts. Joyce's Ulysses, on the other hand, initially faced controversy and censorship due to its explicit content and experimental style. However, it has since become recognized as one of the greatest novels of the 20th century. Joyce's novel revolutionized the form of the novel and has had a profound impact on modernist literature and narrative experimentation.

In conclusion, while both works bear the name Ulysses and draw inspiration from the same mythological figure, they diverge significantly in their style, structure, perspective, themes, and reception. Tennyson's poem is a lyrical celebration of adventure and individualism, while Joyce's novel is an experimental exploration of everyday life and human consciousness. Both works, however, demonstrate the enduring fascination with the mythological figure of Ulysses and his relevance as a symbol of human desires, struggles, and aspirations.

Critical comment on Ulysses by Tennyson in the Victorian Age

 Ulysses by Alfred, Lord Tennyson is undoubtedly a celebrated and influential poem in the realm of English literature. However, it is not immune to critical examination. While the poem displays Tennyson's skillful craftsmanship and eloquent use of language, there are certain aspects that warrant a critical comment.

One notable critique of Ulysses is its portrayal of the titular character. Ulysses, or Odysseus as he is known in Greek mythology, is depicted as a heroic figure seeking new adventures and yearning for the excitement of his youth. Tennyson's Ulysses is presented as restless and dissatisfied with the mundane responsibilities of ruling his kingdom. While this portrayal may be seen as a romanticized and poetic interpretation, it can also be seen as a glorification of a selfish and reckless character.

Furthermore, the poem seems to downplay the importance of Ulysses' responsibilities as a leader and a king. His desire to abandon his kingdom and set sail once again is presented as a noble pursuit of personal fulfillment. This neglects the responsibilities and duties that come with leadership and may undermine the importance of stability and governance.

Another critical point to consider is the poem's tone, which is often viewed as overly idealistic. Ulysses' determination to pursue new experiences at any cost can be interpreted as an endorsement of an individualistic and self-centered mindset. This romanticized perspective neglects the potential consequences of such actions, both for Ulysses himself and for those he leaves behind.

Lastly, it is worth mentioning that Ulysses is often criticized for its lack of diversity and limited perspective. The poem revolves around the thoughts and aspirations of an aging white male protagonist, failing to explore other voices and experiences. This narrow focus can limit the poem's relevance and exclude the perspectives of marginalized groups.

In conclusion, while Ulysses by Tennyson is undeniably a masterpiece of Victorian poetry, it is not immune to criticism. The glorification of a restless and selfish character, the downplaying of leadership responsibilities, the idealistic tone, and the limited perspective all invite critical examination. By engaging with these aspects, we can better understand the poem's limitations and appreciate its strengths in a more nuanced manner.

Tennyson's Poem Ulysses teaching Presentation from Victorian Age

 Title: Tennyson's "Ulysses" - Teaching Demo Presentation

Slide 1: Introduction

- Welcome the audience and introduce the topic: Tennyson's poem "Ulysses."

- Provide a brief overview of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, one of the most prominent Victorian poets.

- Explain that "Ulysses" is a dramatic monologue where the aging Greek hero Ulysses reflects on his life.

Slide 2: Background Information

- Provide historical context: Tennyson wrote "Ulysses" in 1833, during the Victorian era.

- Discuss the influence of Greek mythology on Tennyson's work, particularly the character of Ulysses (Odysseus in Greek mythology).

- Mention that "Ulysses" was published as part of Tennyson's collection "Poems" in 1842.

Slide 3: Poem Analysis - Structure and Form

- Explain that "Ulysses" follows a regular metrical pattern of iambic pentameter (ten syllables per line) throughout the poem.

- Discuss the poem's structure: It consists of a single, continuous stanza of blank verse, comprising 70 lines.

- Emphasize that the use of a dramatic monologue allows readers to gain insights into Ulysses' character and mindset.

Slide 4: Ulysses' Character

- Describe Ulysses as a complex and multifaceted character.

- Highlight his yearning for new experiences and his restlessness despite his old age.

- Discuss his desire for adventure, his sense of duty, and his refusal to settle into a quiet life of retirement.

Slide 5: Themes and Motifs

- Explore the recurring themes in "Ulysses":

   - The pursuit of personal fulfillment and a longing for adventure.

   - The tension between the desire for exploration and the responsibilities of home and family.

   - The fleeting nature of human life and the inevitability of mortality.

- Discuss the motif of the sea as a symbol of freedom, exploration, and the unknown.

Slide 6: Language and Imagery

- Analyze Tennyson's use of language and imagery in "Ulysses."

- Highlight the rich descriptive language that captures the spirit of adventure.

- Discuss the extended metaphor of the "untraveled world" and Ulysses' metaphorical journey towards self-discovery.

Slide 7: Influence and Impact

- Explain the poem's lasting impact and its resonance with readers.

- Discuss how "Ulysses" reflects the spirit of the Victorian era and its ideals of progress, ambition, and individualism.

- Mention that the poem has inspired numerous adaptations in literature, music, and other art forms.

Slide 8: Conclusion

- Summarize the key points discussed in the presentation.

- Reiterate the significance of Tennyson's "Ulysses" as a powerful exploration of human nature, aspirations, and the quest for meaning.

- Encourage the audience to read and engage with the poem personally.

Slide 9: Questions and Discussion

- Open the floor for questions, comments, or further discussion on "Ulysses" or Tennyson's works in general.

- Provide additional insights and clarifications as needed.

Slide 10: Thank You

- Express gratitude to the audience for their participation and attention.

- Provide contact information for further inquiries or follow-up discussions.

- Display any additional relevant resources or recommended readings related to Tennyson or "Ulysses."

Crack the NTA NET English Literature Exam with Our Mock Test: Prepare for Success!

Mock test on English literature for NTA NET:

1. Who is considered the father of English literature?

a) William Shakespeare

b) Geoffrey Chaucer

c) John Milton

d) Samuel Taylor Coleridge

2. Which novel is considered a key work of the Victorian era and explores themes of social class and gender roles?

a) Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë

b) Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

c) Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë

d) Middlemarch by George Eliot

3. Who is the author of the play "The Importance of Being Earnest"?

a) Oscar Wilde

b) George Bernard Shaw

c) Samuel Beckett

d) T.S. Eliot

4. Which poet is associated with the Romantic movement and wrote "Ode to a Nightingale"?

a) John Keats

b) Lord Byron

c) William Wordsworth

d) Percy Bysshe Shelley

5. Who is the author of the novel "To Kill a Mockingbird"?

a) Harper Lee

b) F. Scott Fitzgerald

c) Ernest Hemingway

d) Mark Twain

6. Which poet is known for his metaphysical poetry and wrote "The Flea" and "To His Coy Mistress"?

a) John Donne

b) Andrew Marvell

c) John Milton

d) Alexander Pope

7. Who is the author of the play "Hamlet"?

a) William Shakespeare

b) Christopher Marlowe

c) Ben Jonson

d) Thomas Middleton

8. Which American author wrote the novel "Moby-Dick"?

a) Nathaniel Hawthorne

b) Mark Twain

c) Herman Melville

d) Emily Dickinson

9. Who is the author of the poem "The Waste Land"?

a) T.S. Eliot

b) W.B. Yeats

c) Robert Frost

d) Langston Hughes

10. Which literary movement emerged in the 20th century and focused on the inner thoughts and experiences of characters?

a) Modernism

b) Romanticism

c) Realism

d) Postmodernism

Answers:

1. b) Geoffrey Chaucer

2. a) Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë

3. a) Oscar Wilde

4. a) John Keats

5. a) Harper Lee

6. b) Andrew Marvell

7. a) William Shakespeare

8. c) Herman Melville

9. a) T.S. Eliot

10. a) Modernism

Mastering Grammar: Test Your Knowledge with this Comprehensive Online Quiz!

Online MCQ quiz on grammar:

1. Choose the correct sentence that uses a comma correctly:

   a) I went to the store but I forgot to buy milk.

   b) I went to the store and I forgot to buy milk.

   c) I went to the store, but I forgot to buy milk.

   d) I went to the store but, I forgot to buy milk.

   Correct answer: c) I went to the store, but I forgot to buy milk.

2. Identify the noun in the following sentence:

   "The cat chased the mouse."

   a) chased

   b) cat

   c) the

   d) mouse

   Correct answer: b) cat

3. Choose the correct verb form for the following sentence:

   "She _______ to the party last night."

   a) goes

   b) gone

   c) went

   d) going

   Correct answer: c) went

4. Select the correct use of the apostrophe:

   a) Its time to go.

   b) It's time to go.

   c) Its' time to go.

   d) Its times to go.

   Correct answer: b) It's time to go.

5. Identify the adverb in the following sentence:

   "He quickly ran to catch the bus."

   a) He

   b) quickly

   c) ran

   d) bus

   Correct answer: b) quickly

6. Choose the correct sentence that uses the pronoun correctly:

   a) Her and I went to the movies.

   b) Her and me went to the movies.

   c) She and I went to the movies.

   d) She and me went to the movies.

   Correct answer: c) She and I went to the movies.

7. Identify the correct comparative form of the adjective "good":

   a) gooder

   b) better

   c) best

   d) more good

   Correct answer: b) better

8. Choose the correct sentence that demonstrates subject-verb agreement:

   a) The dog chase the cat.

   b) The dog chases the cat.

   c) The dogs chase the cat.

   d) The dogs chases the cat.

   Correct answer: b) The dog chases the cat.

9. Identify the conjunction in the following sentence:

   "I will study hard so that I can pass the exam."

   a) will

   b) study

   c) hard

   d) so that

   Correct answer: d) so that

10. Choose the correct sentence that uses the correct possessive form:

    a) The cats toy's are scattered everywhere.

    b) The cat's toys are scattered everywhere.

    c) The cats' toys are scattered everywhere.

    d) The cat toy's are scattered everywhere.

    Correct answer: b) The cat's toys are scattered everywhere.

Now, Do some additional questions related to clauses in grammar:

1. Identify the dependent clause in the following sentence:

   "Although it was raining, they went for a walk."

   a) Although it was raining

   b) they went for a walk

   c) it was raining

   d) for a walk

   Correct answer: a) Although it was raining

2. Choose the correct type of clause in the following sentence:

   "I will go to the party if I finish my work."

   a) Noun clause

   b) Adjective clause

   c) Adverb clause

   d) Relative clause

   Correct answer: c) Adverb clause

3. Identify the independent clause in the following sentence:

   "She opened the door and greeted her guests."

   a) She opened the door

   b) and greeted her guests

   c) She opened

   d) her guests

   Correct answer: a) She opened the door

4. Choose the correct sentence that uses a relative clause:

   a) The book, which is interesting.

   b) The book which is interesting.

   c) The book that is interesting.

   d) The book, is interesting.

   Correct answer: c) The book that is interesting.

5. Identify the purpose clause in the following sentence:

   "He studied hard so that he could pass the exam."

   a) He studied hard

   b) so that he could pass

   c) pass the exam

   d) could pass the exam

   Correct answer: b) so that he could pass

6. Choose the correct sentence that uses an adverbial clause:

   a) The dog that barks loudly.

   b) The dog barks loudly.

   c) The dog, barks loudly.

   d) The dog, which barks loudly.

   Correct answer: b) The dog barks loudly.

7. Identify the noun clause in the following sentence:

   "I don't know what he wants."

   a) I don't know

   b) what he wants

   c) he wants

   d) I don't know what

   Correct answer: b) what he wants

8. Choose the correct sentence that uses a conditional clause:

   a) If I will go, I'll let you know.

   b) If I go, I'll let you know.

   c) If I'm going, I'll let you know.

   d) If I went, I'll let you know.

   Correct answer: b) If I go, I'll let you know.

9. Identify the adjective clause in the following sentence:

   "The girl who won the competition is my friend."

   a) The girl who won

   b) the competition is my friend

   c) who won the competition

   d) is my friend

   Correct answer: c) who won the competition

10. Choose the correct sentence that uses a subordinate clause:

    a) I finished my homework, and then I went to bed.

    b) I finished my homework, then I went to bed.

    c) I finished my homework, after I went to bed.

    d) I finished my homework, because I went to bed.

    Correct answer: d) I finished my homework, because I went to bed.

Exploring the Differences: A Comparative Study of the Romantic Age and the Victorian Age in English Literature

 The Romantic Age and the Victorian Age are two distinct periods in English literature, with unique characteristics and themes that set them apart. While both periods are known for their contributions to the literary world, they have several significant differences that make them worth exploring.

The Romantic Age, also known as the Romantic Era, was a literary movement that began in the late 18th century and lasted until the mid-19th century. The Romantic poets, such as William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, and Percy Bysshe Shelley, wrote about nature, emotion, and individualism. They believed in the power of imagination and rejected the strictures of reason and formality that characterized the literature of the preceding age.

On the other hand, the Victorian Age, which lasted from 1837 to 1901, was a period of great social and economic change in England. The literature of this period reflected the values and beliefs of the society, with a strong emphasis on morality, religion, and social responsibility. The Victorian writers, such as Charles Dickens, Jane Austen, and the Bronte sisters, wrote about the lives and struggles of the working class and the role of women in society. They also wrote about the importance of family, education, and respectability.

One of the key differences between the Romantic Age and the Victorian Age is their approach to emotion. The Romantic poets celebrated emotions, such as love, longing, and sorrow, as a natural and essential part of human experience. They believed that emotions could provide a deeper understanding of the world and inspire creativity. On the other hand, the Victorians believed that emotions should be controlled and regulated, and that excessive displays of emotion were inappropriate and even shameful.

Another important difference is the role of nature in literature. The Romantic poets saw nature as a source of inspiration and a symbol of the divine, while the Victorians saw it as a source of moral lessons and a reflection of human society. The Romantic poets wrote about the beauty and power of nature, while the Victorians wrote about the dangers and challenges of nature.

In conclusion, the Romantic Age and the Victorian Age are two distinct periods in English literature, with unique characteristics and themes that set them apart. The Romantic poets celebrated emotions and nature, while the Victorians emphasized morality, religion, and social responsibility. Both periods have made important contributions to the literary world and continue to be studied and admired today.

To Sum up, if you are interested in exploring the unique characteristics of romantic age and Victorian age, you can read the works of Romantic poets like William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, and Percy Bysshe Shelley and Victorian writers like Charles Dickens, Jane Austen, and the Bronte sisters.

Critical Note S.T. Coleridge as a Romantic poet

 Samuel Taylor Coleridge was one of the most influential British Romantic poets of all time. He wrote a countless number of classic poems and works that are still widely deemed important to this day, making him an exemplary model for other contemporary writers.

Coleridge’s unique writing style set him apart from others in his own time period; he had a penchant for incorporating elements native only to outlying countries such as exotic mythology, foreign philosophy and literature—all aspects which deviated from traditional protocols at the time . His language too has been described be modern critics alternatively fluid yet highly descriptive, mesmerizing readers with flowery romanticism rather than technicality and formality commonly associated poetry during the age.. This eschewing of convention is perhaps what motivates so many people today to continue exploring The Rime Of The Ancient Mariner despite its ancient roots: it legitimately paints imagery within our minds beyond simply being read off paper or memorized verbatim like much older literary texts before it.

From human fear & grief we sense envy his dedication even when creating lyrical ballads on foolish wagers given by carefree friends – often reflecting biblical plagues as metaphors while using nature & folktales justly picked up through untrained eyes open wide! While these present who he sublimely was highlights humble themes folks may face similarily now-a -days whether incarcerated swordsmen laments or rising dead raptures pleasing listeners each way In many respects his timelessness does preserve those memories sent… Whilst imagination moves ours quite more profoundly shared piers drown us nigh held firmly past eternity's threshold defiant throughout universe far flung----much due Colridge expressing tyrants masterful courage along fatefully life swells soaring largely Even middle ages differently designed gardens musically sung grow outright secrets penned supremely roars blending fragile edge between brave kings Divine Right even distant heavens' magical hides featuring glorious insight unseen any watchful eye ever discovered lost odes sealed long ago await awaited seekers come hereafter seize leading times cheery waves anew offers diverse ultimate panoramas fully defying pallid written histories reigned near certain collapsing tunnels universal gleaners tap knowledge deep greater reasons they stand why remarkable poet ST Colridge striding diffently deserved memorial kept alive centuries later here---Eyes truly flooding gentle tears upon recollecting every Epic story heard grown very tall indeed hintetnally Never forgotten sir Samuel blesses beloved rhapsodies chosen remain instant Classical Favorites absolute best Moments singing standing ovation thunderclapping grandeur lasting effect though…… That Gentleman shall legacy live always daily masterpiece sublime elegance sustained finds breathtaking lovers adore well done English romantics everywhere i weep fond fans seek living spirit beseechings pass….

Note on William Wordsworth as a Romantic Critic in English literature

  William Wordsworth, a prominent figure in the Romantic movement, was also a noted literary critic. He believed that poetry should be simple and express the emotions and thoughts of common people. He rejected the highly structured and artificial forms of poetry popular in his time, and instead championed a style that was natural and based on personal experience.

In his famous work, "Preface to Lyrical Ballads" (1798), Wordsworth laid out his literary philosophy. He argued that poetry should be written in the language of the common man, rather than in the elevated and artificial language of the poets of his time. This emphasis on simplicity and naturalness was a key aspect of Wordsworth's romanticism. He believed that poetry should be a reflection of the natural world and the emotions of the individual.

Wordsworth also believed that poetry should be rooted in personal experience. He believed that a poet should draw on their own emotions and observations, rather than trying to imitate the work of others. This emphasis on originality and authenticity was another key aspect of Wordsworth's romanticism.

In addition to his literary philosophy, Wordsworth was also a noted critic of the literary establishment of his time. He rejected the neoclassical conventions of his time and instead championed a more natural and emotional style of poetry. This critique of the literary establishment was another important aspect of Wordsworth's romanticism.

In conclusion, William Wordsworth was a prominent literary figure of the Romantic movement and his work as a poet and critic had a significant influence on the literary world of his time. His emphasis on simplicity, naturalness, originality, and authenticity, as well as his critique of the literary establishment, were all key aspects of his romanticism.

Introduction to Lucy Poems by Wordsworth and Analysis of SHE DWELT AMONG THE UNTRODDEN WAYS

 Introduction to Lucy Poems by Wordsworth and Analysis of SHE DWELT AMONG THE UNTRODDEN WAYS

Introduction on Lucy Poems

The five short poems known as 'lucy poems' were written by Wordsworth during his brief stay in

Germany or shortly thereafter. "Three years she grew in sun and shower" was composed in the

Hartz Forest in 1798."A slumber did my spirit seal" was also written in Germany sometime in

1798 it was this poem which Wordsworth sent to Coleridge and Coleridge remarked on this

poem--"some months ago Wordsworth transmitted to me a most sublime epitaph".

The sequence of Lucy poem according to the the date of composition

1. Strange fits of passion I have known. 2. She dwelt among the untrodden ways. 3. Three years she grew in the sun and shower. 4. A slumber did my spirit seal. 5. I travelled among unknown men.

Who is lucy

The real identity of Lucy has never been unraveled in Lucy series. Lucy may or may not

be based off a real life inspiration. No body knows who Lucy was. Although there has

been controversy among many critics that Dorothy maybe Lucy or perhaps his wife, Mary but it seems more probable to us that Lucy is just a product of his poetic

imagination , she is likely a fictional, idealised English girl, a literary device used to

convey his themes of Lucy poems. She is fantasy and dream, an imagined ideal who

cannot exit in the real world. The name 'Lucy' works as poetic muse to Wordsworth's Lucy series.

                              She dwelt among the untrodden ways

This poem was a three stanza poem written by English romantic port

William Wordsworth in 1798 when he was 28 years old. The verse was first

printed in Lyrical Ballads, in 1800. It was described about women feelings

of loneliness and loss, and describe the beauty and dignity of an idealised

women who lived unnoticed by all others. She dwelt among the untrodden ways --> Line 1 a

 She-->Lucy, Lucy lived such a place which is never visited by

someone. Untrodden means untouched and that signifies Lucy is

virgin, no body touched her.

Beside the spring of dove--> line 2 b

 Springs-->origin, Lucy lived decide the prince of dove or hear the place

in the English countryside (Specifically, the Midlands, a rural area

south of Manchester) where the Dove river rises from the earth and

begins its flow. 

A maid whome there were none to praise--> line 3 a

A maid is an an unmarried woman. It also means that woman is a a virgin, youth and innocent. The poet laments for Lucy because she is living

unvisited place, there were none to praise her.

 And very few to love -- line 4 (V.V.I) b

Lucy is practically ignored by others. No one praised her and hardly

anyone loved her. But the "very few" implies that the poet or the speaker

was one of those few. It also denotes that Lucy was loving one to the

speaker, poet. 

A Violet by a mossy stone -->line 5 (V.V.I) c

The word 'violet' in that line is comparison between Lucy and violet. A

'violet' is a beautiful flower and when compared to Lucy, and

automatically it described that her beauty was blocked by moss or by the

luck of freedom to show hard beauties. 

Half hidden from the eye! -->line 6 d

The word half hidden means that Lucy was unexplored women. Because

no one was interested in her. She was unnoticed, untouched, and

overlooked. However, not just in a a physical sense but also in an

emotional one as well. Lucy was depressed in herself because of that.

Fair as star, when only one -->line 7 c

Is shining in the sky-->line 8(V.V.I) d

Her fairness looks like a star, here the poet apparently denotes that he

used the word 'star' as a smile, which is actually "Venus" . Because we

know Venus appears and shines in the sky alone. And we also know

Venus is the brightest star in the sky. And Venus is compared to Lucy's

fairness.

She lived unknown, and few could know--> line 9 e

When Lucy ceased to be ; line 10 f

Line 9--> begins with the phrase "she lived unknown" that simply repeated

the message to the readers deepen the speaker's portrait of Lucy as a

young woman who lived alone and unappreciated. Ceased to be-->died, Lucy " lived unknown" and the reason the speaker says there is few had the

capacity to know the news about Lucy's death, hardly anyone knew the

news "few could know" the speaker was one of those few. Poet used

"ceased to be" to avoid painful language.

But she is in her grave, and, oh --> line 11e

The difference to me! -->line 12 (V.V.I) f

In the poem's final line, keeping aside all hesitations from the reader's

mind, the poet firmly acknowledges Lucy's death by using the line "she is

in her grave". The effect of Lucy's death is different one to the poet

because Lucy was the loving one to him here the employment of the

exclamation at the end of poem the signifies the melancholy of the poet's

heart. (Whereas line 10 evades the fact of lucy's death the poet used "ceased to

be" to avoid death's painful languages but line11 acknowledges it firmly

"she is in her grave".)

                    Figure of speech from the poem

"She dwelt among the untrodden ways" 1. "Beside the spring of Dove" (Allusion)

2. A violet by a mossy stone (Metaphor

Explanation--> here Lucy is compared to a violet flower and also

Lucy compared to a mossy stone. 3. Fair as a star (smile)

4. Fair as a star, when only one is shining in the sky (Allusion)

Explanation-->this line implicitly refers to "Venus" , the Roman

goddess of love, beauty, fertility and sex. 5. She lived unknown and few could know (Polyptoton)

Geofreey Chaucer - Father of English poetry and his Canterbury tales

  Geofreey Chaucer 1340-1400)


Poet, the son of John Chaucer, a London wine merchant, is better known as Father of English poetry. There are uncertain details about his life and his age covers the period from
1340 to 1400. As a youth, he was a page in the Royal household. He held various diplomatic
and civil posts, and in king’s service, he travelled abroad on numerous diplomatic missions.
He got married with Philippa Roet, a sister of John of Gaunt’s third wife due to which he
became a powerful man and also enjoyed royal favors. Visited Italy and made his first
acquaintance with Italian literature and may have met Petrarch and Boccaccio, the two
greatest living Italian men of letters along with Dante who influenced a lot on the growth of
Chaucer’s work. His last official position was that of deputy forester in the King’s Forest at
North Petherton in Somerset. He was buried at the entrance to the Chapel of St Benedict in
Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to him in 1556: this was the origin of
Poet’s Corner.
Chaucer's Style: In the Tales Chaucer abandons the English irregular lines of alliterative
verse – "rim, ram, roff" as he calls it and adopts the French method of regular meter.
Under his influence rhyme gradually displaced alliteration in English poetry & his style is
narrative. He used the ten syllabic lines rhyming in couplet – called the Heroic couplet
which was perfected by Pope. "The Canterbury Tales" is Chaucer’s magnificent
unfinished opus in which he finally drew the various strands of his genius together.
However, Chaucer’s humor, satire, irony are all pervasive in this work.
To William Caxton, England's first printer, Geoffrey Chaucer was "the worshipful
father and first founder and embellisher of ornate eloquence in our English." Perceptive as
this accolade was in its time, today Chaucer is acclaimed not only as "the father of English
poetry" but also as the father of the modern short story and novel— in short, as the father of
English literature. In addition, we are indebted to him for the most vivid contemporary
description of fourteenth-century England.
A man of affairs as well as a man of letters, Chaucer's development as the one was
closely paralleled by his development as the other. Born into a family which belonged to the
rising middle class, he obtained through his father, a successful wine merchant, a position as
page in a household which was closely associated with the court of King Edward III. His
mastery of Latin, French, and Italian, in addition to equipping him for diplomatic and civil
service, also enabled him to translate literary works in all three languages, an important factor
in his development as a writer.
A court favorite, Chaucer rose quickly in the world. Before he was twenty he served
as a soldier in France and, upon being captured, was ransomed by his king. Thereafter,
throughout his life, he served his country loyally—as courtier, diplomat, civil administrator,
and translator. Entrusted with important and delicate diplomatic missions, he traveled on
several occasions to France and Italy, and his journeys abroad played an important role in his
literary and intellectual development. Subsequently, he served as Comptroller of Customs for
the Port of London; Member of Parliament; Justice of the Peace; Clerk of the Works at
Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, and elsewhere; and finally as a sub-forester of one of the king's forests. He was, in fact, a highly valued public servant and was fortunate to enjoy
for most of his life the patronage of the influential John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and uncle
of King Richard II, During his long public career, he became acquainted with the most
important men of his day—diplomats and rulers as well as writers. At his death, his
reputation as a man of affairs and his genius as a poet well established, he was buried in
Westminster Abbey. Today, in the history of English literature, Chaucer's name stands
second only to that of Shakespeare.
From the Prologue to The Canterbury Tales
Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote
When April with his showers hath pierced the drought
The droghte of March hath perced to the roote,
Of March with sweetness to the very root.


Chaucer’s Portrayal of the Knight:
Chaucer portrays the Knight as a person who is both chivalrous as well as wise. His
numerous qualities are listed by Chaucer in the Prologue. He is also portrayed as being a
crusader and a very well travelled individual. The characteristics of bravery and gentleness
are also dwelt on considerably. However, in contrast his appearance is not as grand as his
qualities. He is dressed in rough, stained garments having just returned from a voyage.
Chaucer’s Knight is a representative of the old chivalry of the middle ages, which
was fast dying out. The Knight was a worthy, widely travelled, and brave valiant. He
loved chivalric ideas like truth, honor, freedom and courtesy. He was highly respected for his
goodness and bravery. He participated in fifteen mortal battles and had three times fought
for Christian faith. His pursuits always ended with the death of his enemy. In his behavior he
was soft spoken and as gentle as a maid.
A KNIGHT there was, and that a noble man,
Who from the earliest time when he began
To ride forth, loved the way of chivalry,
Honor and faith and generosity. (2)
The Squire- The squire is the son of the Knight. He was in habit of carving in front of his
father to eat. He knows singing, composing, drawing and writing.
With him there went a SQUIRE, that was his son,
A lover and soldier, full of life and fun,
With locks tight-curled, as if just out of press;
His age in years was twenty, I should guess.

The Yeoman –He is the person who has been given the function of a forester. In the 15th
century it was known as a small land owner. He used to wear green color hood of hunter. He used to handle the weapons perfectly. His hair was cut very short and his face was brown. A
silver medal of St. Christopher he had. A tale of Gamelyn is found in some manuscripts of
Canterbury tales, was intended by Chaucer when x- written. This plan was assigned to
Yeoman and so he tells no stories.
He had a YEOMAN there, and none beside
In service, for it pleased him so to ride;
And he was clad in coat and hood of green.
He bore a sheaf of arrows, bright and keen,
And wings of peacock feathers edged the wood.

Wife of Bath:
Chaucer has portrayed her as, strong willed, opinionated, highly sexed, frank,
humorous and masterful. Her account "of five husbands and arguments against chastity"
presents her character at once. She was an expert and well to do West Country cloth maker.
She was independent and there was no woman in her parish who dared go before her and
make offerings at the offertory (Church).
“In all the parish wif ne was ther noon;
That to the offering before hir sholde goon. ”
The handkerchief upon her on a Sunday, weighed as much as ten pounds. The Wife
of Bath is concerned with not only defending the active use of sex in marriage but also to
insist that married happiness is possible if the husband yield the “maistye” to his wife. Yet,
she was a worthy woman and had married five husbands besides other company in her
youth.
“She was a worthy woman al her lyfe:
Housbonds at chirche dore she hadde five”
Her coverchiefs were woven close of ground,
And weighed, I lay an oath, at least ten pound
----------------------------
----------------------------
She was a worthy woman all her life;
Five times at church door had she been a wife,
Not counting other company in youth (14)

The  Parson-The parson exhibits virtue in ecclesiastical world where as the Knight
represents virtue in secular world.
There was a PARSON, too, that had his cure
In a small town, a good man and a poor;
But rich he was in holy thought and work.


The Plowman – It was done deliberately to present brotherhood relationship. These people
represent the virtue of their respective occupation. He was very devoted to God. He used a
life with happiness in spite of being poor. He used to help the needy and regards his friends
very much.
With him his brother, a simple PLOWMAN, rode,
That in his time had carted many a load
Of dung; true toiler and a good was he,
Living in peace and perfect charity.

Neo - classical age in English literature (1660-1798)

Neo - classical age in English literature (1660-1798)......

Neoclassical age reached after the decaying of Commonwealth period. During This period monarchy system continued again  all over England .the writers of this period tried to imitate the style of Roman and Greeks. The combination of the term "neo " which means new and another "classical "as in the day of Roman and Greek classics. There was the era of enlightenment which emphasised logic and reason. This period was preceded by renaissance period and followed by romantic era. Before renaissance life and literature was mainly dictated by the church, however during renaissance science and innovation was given maim emphasises. In neo classical era a vast difference between the two ideologies can be witnessed. There are confusion and contrary depiction too. Neo classical period ended in 1798 when Wordsworth published the romantic lyrical ballad.
**this age can be divided into three small periods**....
1) restoration period or the age of Dryden (1660-1700) 
2) the age of Pope or Augustan age (1700-1750)
3) the age of Johnson (1750-1798)

*** characterization of neo classical age **
It was the time of comfortableness in England. It was the beginning of the British tradition drinking tea and it was the starting point of middle class .for this reason more people were literate. It was the same time when eight monarchy took throne.

*** the effect of epic poetry ,novels and criticism swept all over Europe during this period. The rape of the lock by Alexander pope , an essay on dramatic criticism and other novels were popular too.

** drama began to decline during this period. This was the age of  theatre  so people became  attracted too much towards actor and actresses rather than playwrights. They were losing their interest in plays and playwrights which were being produced ever. The rise of the novel displaced the drama. Novels appeared as better way to depict life, manners and ideas.
**Revival of old plays hindered the creation of new plays .the plays of Shakespeare ,beauomont and Fletcher were revived. Shakespeare like Romeo Juliet, king Lear were given happy endings.
**the drama of the age failed to receive the support of king. William 3 was no patron of the theatre, nor was queen Anne, nor was the first two Georges, without support of the king. It was difficult for the dramatists to put their influence over the public of the day.
** moral restraint was followed by the political restraint. As a result of freedom fielding and other attacked Walpole 'S government a licensing act was passed and censorship was appeared on the drama. According to the act dramatist couldn't produce plays.

**HEROIC DRAMA ***
Heroic tragedy was called heroic drama. Dryden main supporter of the tragedy called it heroic drama. Plays were written in the classical model of the rhyming couplet and later in blank verse tragedy. Theme was based on the struggle between love and honor. The hero and heroine were cast on grand scale and their dialogues consisted of elaborated speeches in rhymed 10 syallbaled couplets, full of emotions.

*** the place of sentimental and anti sentimental comedies **

sentimental comedies were famous.
1)colley cibber - love's last shift, provoked husband.
2)richard Steele was famous for periodical essays. The lying lover, the tender husband were famous.
3)hugh Kelly =false delicacy
4) Richard Cumberland = he wrote thirty plays. Most of them were tragedies. West Indian and the fashionable lover were his famous comedies.
5) Sheridan = school for scandal
6) Addison, goldsmith were famous too.

Important Writings and writers

😵CONFUSING TITLES😱
Works Authors

🌻Essay on Man - a poem by Pope
🌻Essay on Milton - a prose by Macaulay
🌻Essay on Criticism - a poem by Pope
🌻Essay In Criticism - a prose by Mathew Arnold
🌻Essays of Elia - Charles Lamb
🌻Essays of Ancient & Modern - T. S. Eliot
🌻The Rape of the Lock - epic poem by Pope
🌻The Rape of the Lucrecee - a long poem by Shakespeare
🌻The way of the World - A comedy by William Congrave
🌻The Way of All Flesh - a novel by Samuel Butler.
🌻The Prelude - A poem by William Wordsworth
🌻Preludes - A poem by T. S. Eliot
🌻Elizabethan Essays - Prose by T. S. Eliot
🌻Elizabeth and Essex - prose by Lytton Stretchey
🌻Everyman - One of the best known morality plays.
🌻Everyman in His Humour - Satirical comedy by Ben Jonson.
🌻The Book of The Duchesse - A poem by Chaucer
🌻The Book of Martyrs - a story by John Foxe
🌻The Pilgrim’s Progress - by John Bunyan
🌻The Pilgrim’s of the Rhine - by Bulwer Lytton
🌻The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent – a novel by Sterne
🌻Tristram & Iscult - Matthew Arnold
🌻Lyrical Ballads - Collection poems by Coleridge & Wordsworth
🌻Prefare to Lyrical Bullads - A prose by Wordsworth.
🌻All for love - A blank verse tragedy by Dryden
🌻Love labour lost - A drama by Shakespeare
🌻A portrait of The Artist as a Young man- A novel by Joyce
🌻Portrait of dare - a novel by Francis Bret James
🌻A portrait of A lady - a novel by Henry James
🌻The Duchess of Dadna - a drama by Oscar Wilde
🌻The Duchess of Malfi - tragedy John Webster
🌻A Tale of Two cities - a novel by Dickens
🌻A Tale of Manchester Life - a novel by Mrs. E. Gaskell
🌻The Anatomy of Melancholy - a critique by Robert Burton
🌻The Anatomy of the world - a poem on prince Henry written by
Donne
🌻The Battle of Books - a satire by swift
🌻The Battle of Maldon - Anclo Saxon war poem.
🌻A women killed with kindress - a drama by Heywood
🌻The woman in the Moon - a play by Lily
🌻Ode on The Nativity - a poem by Milton
🌻Ode on Duty - a poem by Wordsworth
🌻1.The shepherd calendar(1579) by spencer.
🌻 The shepherd's calendars with village stories and other poems(1827) by john clare.
🌻2. A defence of poetry (1821) essay by P.B. Shelly written response to his friend Thomas Love Peacock's The four ages of poetry(1820) .
🌻The defency of poesy or An apology for poetry (1595) by sidney it is reply to Stephen Gosson's The School of abuse (1579).
🌻3. Rainbow is a poem by wordsworth,
🌻The Rainbow is a novel by D.H. Lawrence.
🌻4.Passage To India novel (1924)by E.M. Forster.
🌻 A Passage to India poem by Walt Whitman.
🌻A Passage to England (1959)by Nirad C. Chaudhuri
🌻.5.The Portrait of a Lady is a novel(1881) by Henry James.
🌻 A portrait of a lady poem by Eliot.
🌻A Portrait of a lady by william carlos williams (first published in the Dial August 1920)
🌻6. London poem by blake.
🌻London 1802 sonnet by Wordsworth.
🌻England 1819 poem by shelly.
🌻7 the gift of magi -short story by o Henry
🌻Journey of the magi -poem by t.s.Eliot
🌻8 Lord Jim-novel by Joseph Conrad
🌻Lucky Jim-novel by Kinsley Amis
🌻9 an otter-poem by Ted Hughes
🌻The otter-poem by Seamus Heaney
🌻10 utopia-novel by Thomas Moore
🌻A modern utopia-novel by H.G.Wells
🌻11 the casualty-poem by Ted Hughes
🌻Casualty-poem by Seamus Heaney
🌻12 alchemists-play by Ben jonson
🌻Alchemist-novel by Paulo kohalo
🌻13 A vision of judgement-short story by H.G.Wells
🌻A vision of judgement-poem by Robert southy
🌻A vision of judgement-poem by Byron
🌻14 metamorphosis-poem by Ovid
🌻Metamorphosis-novella by Kafka
🌻15 the golden bough-prose by James Frazer
🌻The golden notebook-novel by dorris Lessig
🌻The golden threshold -collection of poem by sarojni naidu.

Origin and Growth of English Drama

#ORIGIN_AND_GROWTH_OF_ENGLISH_DRAMA
☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀☀

💠Drama is a literary composition, which is performed by professional actors on stage (or theatre), before an audience. It involves conflicts, actions and a particular theme. Eye-catching make up, facial expressions and body language of the artists are prominent features.

👉#Origin_of_Drama:

💠Western drama originated in Greece around 500 B.C. Ancient Greek drama consists of three kinds of plays:

👉Tragedy
👉Comedy
👉Satyr plays

👉#Ancient_Greek_Drama:

💠The first tragedies are said to have been performed in 534 B.C. at the festival of Dionysus in Athens Satyr-dramas were added in 501 B.C. Comedies were first officially produced in Athens in 486 B.C. Greek drama flourished in Athens through 500 B.C. to 300 B.C.

💠Athens appears to have been the primary locus of dramatic activity in classical Greece. Comedies were also performed from the beginning of the fifth century B.C. onward in Sicily. The earliest dramas were designed to worship gods and goddesses. Masks were used to represent characters; high-soled boots were worn to add height. Antigone, Oedipus Rex and Medea are among the famous plays written during this time.

👉#Roman_Drama:

💠Roman drama refers to any dramatic form tragedy, comedy, farce, mime and pantomime composed in the Latin language. Latin was used by the inhabitants of the city of Rome and eventually became the administrative language of the Roman republic (509 30 B.C.) and the Roman Empire (30 B.C. 476 A.D.).

💠The Romans witnessed the first form of dramatic performance in Rome in 364 B.C. The people of Tuscany staged the performance in order to help the Romans avert a plague. They performed some form of dance accompanied by flute music. The first official dramatic performance was performed in Rome in 240 B.C. Livius Andronicus stage a tragedy and a comedy at the ludi Romani (Roman games). Livius Andronicus was a Greek slave. It is unclear whether his performances were translations or adaptations of Greek dramas.

👉Roman comedies and tragedies were performed at:

💠Festivals known as Ludi.
Temple dedications.
Triumphal parades.
Funerals of Roman aristocrats.
Roman theaters were temporary wooden structures taken down after the performance.

💠The first stone stage was seen after 55 B.C. Roman nobility funded Roman dramas, the actors themselves were noble.

👉#Fall_of_Rome:

💠With the fall of the Roman Empire, Roman drama comes to its own end. Roman drama and Roman comedy in particular have enduring effect on the Western dramatic tradition.

👉#Death_of_Drama:

💠From the fall of Rome in the late fifth century until the tenth century, the drama was essentially dead. This was due in part to the Romans’ lack of interest in drama and the Christians of late antiquity. Acting was considered unchristian in the early medieval period as Roman Catholic Church banned theatrical performances. Drama remained dead for several years.

👉#The_Rebirth_of_Drama:

💠Drama was reintroduced into Western Europe in the tenth century. Just as drama was born among Greeks a part of religious observances, among Christians it too was reborn as a part of religion. Drama was reborn during The Middle Ages (Medieval Period).

👉#Medieval_Drama:

💠The Christian festival celebration had always included elements that were potentially dramatic. In the 10th century bits of chanted dialogue, called tropes, were added to the Easter celebration. This was the beginning of drama in post-classical Western Europe. These little plays (troops) grew more elaborate. Some of the later Latin plays were elaborate and, taking well over an hour to perform. The purpose of these plays was to teach religion.

👉#Late_Medieval_Drama:

💠A great deal of dramatic material is found in the late 12th and early 13th centuries and the 14th century. Most of it is religious. These plays can be divided into:

💠The mystery plays – life of Christ.
Miracle plays – lives of saints.
Morality plays – being good/ moral.

👉#Renaissance_Drama:

💠The English Renaissance, a cultural and artistic movement in England from 16th to early 17th century. It paved the way for the dominance of drama in the country. Queen Elizabeth I ruled during the period Great poetry and drama were produced. The renowned playwrights of this time include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and John Webster.

💠The dramatists wrote plays based on themes like history, comedy and tragedy. Shakespeare emerged as an artist who produced plays based on all the three themes. Drama had previously been performed in temporary spaces. In 1567 the first public theater, the Red Lion Theatre in White chapel, was built. With the establishment of public theaters and acting companies the demand for plays was met by a group of highly educated men who were deeply educated in classical literature.

👉#Modern_Drama:

💠Modern Drama begins in the late nineteenth century and continues to the present day. By the late nineteenth century the Industrial Revolution and other economic changes insured that prosperous, educated middle-class people comprise the majority of theater- goers.

💠Romanticism gave way to Realism during the 19th century, paving the way for the era of contemporary drama in the20th century. Contemporary drama shows the influence of all that has come before. Modern drama involved much experimentation with new forms and ideas.

💠In the early part of the 20th century, musical drama came to dominate stages in New York and England, although each theater season saw the release of straight dramatic plays as well. The renowned playwrights of this time include W. S. Gilbert, Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw.

👉#Present_Time:

💠The majority of musical dramas of the 20th century were written by Andrew Lloyd Webber. His works gained immense popularity. The dramas traveled to Broadway in New York and around the world. Some of them were turned into feature films as well.

💠Postmodernism had a serious effect on the existence of English drama, in the end of 20th century. However, a large number of theatres still exist around Shaftesbury Avenue, in the western part of London. The Royal Shakespeare Company, operating from Stratford-upon-Avon (Shakespeare’s hometown), currently produces most of the plays written by the legendary dramatist.

👉#Conclusion:

💠Drama in Western Europe was started by Greeks which influenced most of the dramas in Rome. As the world saw the fall of Roman Empire, the drama died as well. Drama was reborn in the early Medieval time as part of religion.

💠People like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, and John Webster changed the way dramas were perceived during Renaissance. The modern drama is still much alive but most people are starting to take more interest in other sources of entertainment.

Linguistic -learning through small facts

Linguistic🌷🌹😊👇

#Articulatory_Phonetics

The production of speech involves 3 processes:
Initiation: Setting air in motion through the vocal tract.
Phonation: The modification of airflow as it passes through the larynx (related to voicing).
Articulation: The shaping of airflow to generate particular sound types (related to manner)


Articulatory phonetics refers to the “aspects of phonetics which looks at how the sounds of speech are made with the organs of the vocal tract” Ogden (2009:173).
Articulatory phonetics can be seen as divided up into three areas to describe consonants. These are voice, place and manner respectively. Each of these will now be discussed separately, although all three areas combine together in the production of speech.


⭐⏩1) Voice

In English we have both voiced and voiceless sounds. A sound fits into one of these categories according to how the vocal folds behave when a speech sound is produced.

Voiced: Voiced sounds are sounds that involve vocal fold vibrations when they are produced. Examples of voiced sounds are /b,d,v,m/.

If you place two fingers on either side of the front of your neck, just below your jawbone, and produce a sound, you should be able to feel a vibrating sensation. This tells you that a sound is voiced.

Voiceless: Voiceless sounds are sounds that are produced with no vocal fold vibration. Examples of voiceless sounds in English are /s,t,p,f/.

⭐⏩2) Place

The vocal tract is made up of different sections, which play a pivotal role in the production of speech. These sections are called articulators and are what make speech sounds possible. They can be divided into two types.

The active articulator is the articulator that moves towards another articulator in the production of a speech sound. This articulator moves towards another articulator to form a closure of some type in the vocal tract (i.e open approximation, close, etc – define)

The passive articulator is the articulator that remains stationary in the production of a speech sound. Often, this is the destination that the active articulator moves towards (i.e the hard palate).



I will now talk about the different places of articulation in the vocal tract

#Bilabial: Bilabial sounds involve the upper and lower lips. In the production of a bilabial sound, the lips come into contact with each other to form an effective constriction. In English, /p,b,m/ are bilabial sounds.


#Labiodental: Labiodental sounds involve the lower lip (labial) and upper teeth (dental) coming into contact with each other to form an effective constriction in the vocal tract. Examples of labiodental sounds in English are /f,v/. Labiodental sounds can be divided into two types.

a) #Endolabial: sounds produced where the upper teeth are pressed against the inside of the lower lip.

b) #Exolabial: sounds produced where the upper teeth are pressed against the outer side of the lower lip.



#Dental: Dental sounds involve the tongue tip (active articulator) making contact with the upper teeth to form a constriction. Examples of Dental sounds in English are / θ, ð/.   If a sound is produced where the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth, it is attributed the term ‘interdental’.


#Alveolar: First of all, before I explain what an alveolar sound is, it’s useful to locate the alveolar ridge itself. If you place your tongue just behind your teeth and move it around, you’ll feel a bony sort of ridge. This is known as the alveolar ridge. Alveolar sounds involve the front portion of the tongue making contact with the alveolar ridge to form an effective constriction in the vocal tract. Examples of alveolar sounds in English are /t,d,n,l,s/.


#Postalveolar: Postalveolar sounds are made a little further back (‘post’) from the alveolar ridge. A postalveolar sound is produced when the blade of the tongue comes into contact with the post-alveolar region of your mouth. Examples of post-alveolar sounds in English are /  ʃ, ʒ    /.


#Palatal: Palatal sounds are made with the tongue body (the big, fleshy part of your tongue). The tongue body raises up towards the hard-palate in your mouth (the dome shaped roof of your mouth) to form an effective constriction. An example of a palatal sounds in English is /j/, usually spelt as <y>.


#Velar: Velar sounds are made when the back of the tongue (tongue dorsum) raises towards the soft palate, which is located at the back of the roof of the mouth. This soft palate is known as the velum. An effective constriction is then formed when these two articulators come into contact with each other. Examples of velar sounds in English are /k,g ŋ  /.


⭐⏩3) Manner

In simple terms, the manner of articulation refers to the way a sound is made, as opposed to where it’s made. Sounds differ in the way they are produced. When the articulators are brought towards each other, the flow of air differs according to the specific sound type. For instance, the airflow can be completely blocked off or made turbulent.



⭐⏩1) Stop articulations:

Stop articulations are sounds that involve a complete closure in the vocal tract. The closure is formed when two articulators come together to prevent air escaping between them. Stop articulations can be categorized according to the kind of airflow involved. The type of airflow can be oral (plosives) or nasal (nasals). I will now talk about both plosives and nasals separately.

1a) #Plosives: are sounds that are made with a complete closure in the oral (vocal) tract.  The velum is raised during a plosive sound, which prevents air from escaping via the nasal cavity. English plosives are the sounds /p,b,t,d,k,g/. Plosives can be held for quite a long time and are thus also called ‘maintainable stops’.



1b) Nasals are similar to plosives in regards to being sounds that are made with a complete closure in the oral (vocal) tract. However, the velum is lowered during nasal sounds, which allows airflow to escape through the nasal cavity. There are 3 nasal sounds that occur in English /m,n, ŋ/



⭐⏩2) Fricatives:

Fricative sounds are produced by narrowing the distance between the active and passive articulators causing them to be in close approximation. This causes the airflow to become turbulent when it passes between the two articulators involved in producing a fricative sound. English fricatives are sounds such as / f,v, θ,ð, s,z, ʃ,ʒ     /



⭐⏩3) Approximants:

Approximant sounds are created by narrowing the distance between the two articulators. Although, unlike fricatives, the distance isn’t wide enough to create turbulent airflow.  English has 4 approximant sounds which are /w,j,r,l/.



#Vowels

When it comes to vowels, we use a different specification to describe them. We look at the vertical position of the tongue, the horizontal position of the tongue and lip position.

Vowels are made with a free passage of airflow down the mid-line of the vocal tract. They are usually voiced and are produced without friction.



⭐⏩1) Vertical tongue position (close-open): vertical tongue position refers to how close the tongue is to the roof of the mouth in the production of a vowel. If the tongue is close, it is given the label close. However, if the tongue is low in the mouth when a vowel is produced, it’s given the label open.  + close-mid/open mid (see below).



Some examples of open vowels: ɪ, ʊ

Some examples of close vowels: æ, ɒ,



⭐⏩2) Horizontal tongue position (front, mid, back): Horizontal tongue refers to where the tongue is positioned in the vocal tract in terms of ‘at the front’ or ‘at the back’ when a vowel is produced. If the tongue is at the front of the mouth it’s given the label front, if the tongue is in the middle of the mouth it’s given the label mid and if the tongue is at the back of the mouth it’s given the label back.

Some examples of front vowels: ɪ , e, æ

Some examples of mid vowels: ə

Some examples of back vowels:  ʌ,ɒ



⏩3) Lip position: As is inferred, lip position concerns the position of the lips when a vowel is produced. The lips can either be round, spread or neutral.

Examples of round vowels: u, o

Examples of spread vowels: ɪ, ɛ



There are also different categories of vowels, for example: monophthongs and diphthongs.



#Monophthongs: Monophthongs are vowels that are produced by a relatively stable tongue position.

Monophthongs can be divided into two categories according to their duration. These are long and short vowels and their duration is mirrored in their names.

Examples of short vowels: e, æ, ɪ, ʊ

Examples of long vowels: ɔ: ɜ:, i:, u:



#Diphthongs: Diphthongs are vowels where the tongue moves from one part of the mouth to another. They seen as starting of as one vowel and ending as a different vowel.